EYS PRSUPP - Chapter 8

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CHAPTER EIGHT

FUNDAMENTALS OF THE CLIENT-LAWYER RELATIONSHIP --

LOYALTY, INDEPENDENT JUDGMENT, AND CONFLICT OF INTERESTS

Professor Ellen Suni
University of Missouri
Kansas City School of Law

An Overview of Conflicts of Interest

Professor Glesner Fines

ATTORNEY’S INTERESTS

(1.8, 3.7)

   THIRD PARTY
        INTERESTS

          (1.8, 1.13)

I. INTRODUCTION

The concept of loyalty to the client pervades every set of rules governing lawyer behavior and is an essential element of the attorney/client relationship. To promote such loyalty, the Canons of Ethics focused on avoiding "conflicts of interest." That term was difficult to define, however, and the Code focused on the attorney's duty to exercise independent professional judgment on behalf of the client. The rules under the Code suggest that by avoiding situations in which the attorney's independent professional judgment is likely to be impaired, the obligation of loyalty to the client can be achieved. The Model Rules have returned to the concept of conflict of interest, but most of the essence of the rules has not changed.

Issues of conflict of interest and exercise of independent professional judgment arise in many contexts at all levels of practice. Conflicts can arise in the advising and counseling stage as well as in litigation; and in choosing clients, lawyers and law firms must keep a watchful eye towards current or future conflicts. Challenges to an attorney's acceptance or continuation of employment can arise in various forums as well. In addition to the potentiality of disciplinary proceedings, issues involving conflicts of interest and independent professional judgment arise in attorney disqualification motions, malpractice cases and in appeal of criminal convictions alleging ineffective assistance of counsel.

Should the setting in which the question arises affect the substantive standards used to address whether a conflict exists and whether it is permissible? Should the Code or Model Rules be used as the relevant “law” in disqualification or malpractice cases involving conflicts? Why or why not? Keep these questions in mind as you read the following materials.

What kind of interests can impair an attorney's independent professional judgment? What are the sources of conflict, both potential and real? These materials will consider the various conflicts that may affect a lawyer's independent judgment and the attempts that have been made to balance the various interests at stake.

II. LAWYER'S OWN INTEREST

The Model Rules address issues of the lawyer’s own interests in Rule 1.7(b) and 1.8. The Missouri Supreme Court has recognized the "inherent danger of becoming personally involved with the affairs of clients, self dealing with clients, and of 'taking a piece of the action."' In re Lowther, 611 S.W. 2d 1, 2 (Mo. banc 1981). The Court there stated: "The attorney, with his superior knowledge and education, can pursue this course only at his peril. It is an area wrought with pitfalls and traps and the Court is without choice other than to hold the attorney to the highest of standards under such circumstances." Id.

A. Personal and Financial Interests

Model Rule 1.7(b) prohibits representation where the lawyer's interest may materially limit the lawyer's representation of a client. The proposed Restatement of the Law Governing Lawyers similarly prohibits undertaking or continuing representation if "there is a substantial risk that the lawyer's representation of the client would be materially and adversely affected by the lawyer’s financial or other personal interests. Restatement, § 125 (2000).

D.R. 5-101(A), the predecessor to Model Rule 1.7(b), was utilized to discipline attorneys for a variety of actions, including investing a client's money in property owned by the attorney's relative (Matter of Gamble 122 Ariz. 2, 592 P.2d 1268 [en banc 1979]); a loan of client's money to a corporation in which the attorney had an interest, (Matter of Reno, 609 P.2d 704 [Mont. 1980]), and preparing a will designating the attorney's sister as a beneficiary and the attorney as executrix with broad powers (State v. Gulbankian, 54 Wisc. 2d 599, 196 N.W.2d 730 [1972]).

When does a lawyer’s personal views give rise to conflicts under this section? When does a lawyer’s representation of a client limit what the lawyer can say or do outside of the contours of the attorney-client relationship? See Restatement, § 125, Comment e. Although a lawyer’s representation of a client is not an endorsement of the client or its views, M.R. 1.2(b), there may be a point at which a lawyer’s own views and the needs or demands of the client come into real conflict. At what point is consent required? At what point, if any, must or may the attorney withdraw? See M.R. 1.16(a)(1) and (b)(3).

What about sexual interest in a client? Can unwanted sexual advances create a conflict under Rule 1.7(b)? The Missouri Supreme Court said yes in In re Howard, 912 S.W.2d 61 (Mo. banc 1995), where the court stated:

The Rules are clear: “The lawyer’s own interests should not be permitted to have an adverse effect on representation of a client.” Comment, Rule. 1.7. Howard’s unwanted sexual advances undermined the client’s faith in his service and interfered with his independent professional judgment. Both the complainants testified that rejecting Howard’s advances adversely affected his representation. In sum, Howard attempted to force clients to prostitute themselves to secure legal services, and thus violated Rules 1.7(b) and 2.1.

See also ABA/BNA Lawyer’s Manual, 51:408-410; ABA Formal Op. 92-364 (1992). Some jurisdictions have adopted, or are considering, special rules to address this issue.

What about the lawyer who is seeking employment with a firm representing adverse to a current client? Do negotiations with that firm create a conflict of interest? The ABA Commission on Ethics and Professional Responsibility concluded that such negotiation could implicate Rule 1.7(b) where there is sufficient likelihood that a conflict will eventuate and could materially interfere with the lawyer’s independent professional judgment. Thus,

a lawyer who has an active and material role in representing a client in ligation must consult with and obtain the consent of that client, ordinarily before he participates in a substantive discussion of his experience, clients, or business potential or the terms of an association with an opposing firm.

ABA Formal Op. 94-400. See also Restatement, § 127, Comment d.

The Model Rules are more specific than the Code with regard to certain potential conflicts. For example, M.R. 1.8(c) prevents a lawyer from preparing an instrument giving the lawyer or a person closely related to the lawyer a substantial gift unless the client is related to the donee. See also Restatement, § 208. In addition, M.R. 1.8(i) specifically addresses representation of adverse interests by related lawyers (parent, child, sibling or spouse) and prohibits such representation absent consent after consultation.

B. Business Transactions With Clients

Model Rule 1.8(a) prevents an attorney from entering into a business transaction with a client or acquiring a pecuniary interest adverse to a client unless the transaction is fair and reasonable, the terms are understandably disclosed in writing to the client, the client is given a reasonable opportunity to seek advice from independent counsel, and the client consents in writing. The Restatement prohibits such business or financial transactions except a standard commercial transaction in which the lawyer does not render legal services, unless (1) the client has adequate information about the terms of the transaction and the risks presented by the lawyer's involvement, (2) the terms and circumstances of the transaction are fair and reasonable to the client, and (3) the client consents after being encouraged to seek, and given a reasonable opportunity to obtain, independent legal advice. Restatement, § 128.

In Missouri, D.R. 5-104(A), the predecessor to Rule 1.8(a), was utilized to discipline an attorney for making a sale of unwanted property to a client, In re Mills, 539 S.W.2d 447 (Mo. banc 1976) and for borrowing money from an incompetent client and selling property of the client to the attorney's wife. In re Miller, 568 S.W.2d 246 (Mo. banc 1978). In both instances, it was no defense that the transactions were consummated at fair market value and there was neither profit to the attorney nor loss to the client. Further, the court has indicated that dealings between lawyer and client are presumptively invalid, and the attorney bears the burden of demonstrating that the transaction was fair and full disclosure made. Miller, 568 S.W.2d at 205-208.

Rule 1.8(a) does not apply unless there is an actual attorney-client relationship between the lawyer and the client at the time the business transaction is entered into. Thus, where an attorney borrowed a substantial sum from a former client, and gave no indication he was giving legal advice to the former client regarding the current transaction, a finding of violation of Rule 1.8(a) was not proper. In re Disney, 922 S.W.2d 12, 14-15 (Mo. banc 1996).

M.R. 1.8(d) prohibits an attorney from acquiring publication rights in a client's case prior to the conclusion of the matter. Note that there is no consent provision relative to this prohibition. See also ABA Standards, The Defense Function, Standard 4-3.4. Why? What are the risks of such transactions? Are they sufficient to override the client’s desire for such representation? And why would a client agree to such conflicted representation in any event? Might a criminal defendant have a constitutional right to counsel of choice that overrides this provision? See Maxwell v. Superior Court, 639 P.2d 248 (Cal. 1982). See generally Annotated Rules, at 129-30.

C. A Piece of the Action

Pursuant to M.R. 1.8(j), a lawyer may not acquire a proprietary interest in a client's cause of action. Exceptions to this rule allow an attorney to acquire a lien to collect a fee and to charge a contingent fee. Note that this rule applies only to litigation, and not to business transactions or other non-litigation matters.

M.R. 1.8(e) addresses financial assistance to clients. The Rule prohibits an attorney from advancing or guaranteeing financial assistance to a client unless the items involve costs of litigation. Such costs and expenses may be advanced with repayment contingent on the outcome of the case, and, if the client is indigent, the attorney may pay costs and litigation expenses for the client. Expenses beyond these, however, are still prohibited.

Should an attorney be allowed to advance living expenses to an impoverished client who is unable to work due to an accident? Why or why not? What if the client’s lack of funds would cause the client to accept a settlement the attorney considers grossly inadequate, and such advancement of funds would therefore prevent an injustice? What justifications for the rule outweigh these seemingly compelling considerations? For a discussion of the policies behind these rules, see Comment, Loans to Clients For Litigation Expenses, 55 Cal. L. Rev. 1419 (1967); see also Annotated Rules, at 130-132.

III. OTHER CLIENTS

A. Current Clients

MR 1.7(a) and (b) address simultaneous representation of multiple clients. As a general rule, such representation is permitted where the clients consent after consultation (full disclosure of risks and benefits) and where the attorney reasonably believes the interests of both clients can be adequately served by joint representation.

Issues relating to conflicts among current clients can arise in a variety of contexts. The Restatement has developed separate sections dealing with the different types of issues. See, Restatement, §§ 128-131. The Model Rules themselves recognize that acting as an intermediary between clients raises issues that are not identical to other conflict or potential conflict situations. Compare M.R. 1.7 with 2.2.

1. Litigation Conflicts

Initially, current client conflicts can arise in litigation. These conflicts can occur in representing opposing parties or co-parties.

a) Representing Opposing Parties

Representation of parties in opposition to each other implicates loyalty concerns as well as potential misuse of confidential information. Thus, representation of opposing parties in the same litigation is clearly prohibited, even when different lawyers from the same firm work on the opposite sides. See M.R. 1.10(a). The same rule applies when one attorney in a firm represents a defendant in a civil case arising out of an assault and another attorney in the firm works as a part-time prosecutor in the office prosecuting the defendant for criminal assault arising out of the same incident. The Missouri Supreme Court held that the entire prosecutor’s office had to be disqualified on these facts. State v. Ross, 829 S.W.2d 948 (Mo. banc 1992).

But what about representing a client in one case, and opposing that client in a wholly unrelated matter? Would that violate Rule 1.7 or require disqualification? Are the standards for discipline and disqualification the same? Should they be?

Consider the following:

In re DRESSER INDUSTRIES, INC.

972 F.2d 540 (5th Cir. 1992)

E. GRADY JOLLY, Circuit Judge:

In this petition for a writ of mandamus, we determine whether a law firm may sue its own client, which it concurrently represents in other matters. In a word, no; and most certainly not here, where the motivation appears only to be the law firm's self‑interest. ¹ We therefore grant the writ, directing the district judge to disqualify counsel.

The material facts are undisputed. This petition arises from a consolidated class action antitrust suit brought against manufacturers of oil well drill bits. Red Eagle Resources et al. v. Baker Hughes ("Drill Bits ").

Dresser Industries, Inc., ("Dresser") is now a defendant in Drill Bits, charged‑‑by its own lawyers‑‑with conspiring to fix the prices of drill bits and with fraudulently concealing its conduct. Stephen D. Susman, with his firm, Susman Godfrey, is lead counsel for the plaintiff's committee. As lead counsel, Susman signed the amended complaint that levied these charges against Dresser, his firm's own client.

Susman Godfrey concurrently represents Dresser in two pending lawsuits. CPS International, Inc. v. Dresser Industries, Inc., No. H‑85‑653 (S.D.Tex.) ("CPS "), is the third suit brought by CPS International, a company that claims Dresser forced it out of the compressor market in Saudi Arabia. CPS International initially sued Dresser for antitrust violations and tortious interference with a contract. The antitrust claim has been dismissed, but the tort claim is scheduled for trial. Susman Godfrey has represented Dresser throughout these actions, which commenced in 1985. During its defense of Dresser, Susman Godfrey lawyers have had relatively unfettered access to data concerning Dresser's management, organization, finances, and accounting practices. Susman Godfrey's lawyers have engaged in privileged communications with Dresser's in‑house counsel and officers in choosing antitrust defenses and other litigation strategies. Susman Godfrey has also, since 1990, represented Dresser in Cullen Center, Inc., et al. v. W.R. Gray Co., et al., a case involving asbestos in a Dresser building, which is now set for trial in Texas state court.

On October 24 and November 24, 1991, Susman Godfrey lawyers wrote Dresser informing it that Stephen Susman chaired the plaintiffs' committee in Drill Bits, that Dresser might be made a Drill Bits defendant, and that, if Dresser replaced Susman Godfrey, the firm would assist in the transition to new counsel. Dresser chose not to dismiss Susman Godfrey in CPS and Cullen Center.

Dresser was joined as a defendant in Drill Bits on December 2, 1991. Dresser moved to disqualify Susman as plaintiffs' counsel on December 13. Both Dresser and Susman Godfrey submitted affidavits and depositions to the district court, which, after a hearing, issued a detailed opinion denying the motion.

[The District Court, in ruling on the motion, looked to the Texas Disciplinary Rules.]

The district court described the Drill Bits complaint as a civil antitrust case, thus somewhat softening Dresser's description of it as an action for fraud or criminal conduct. The court held, "as a matter of law, that there exists no relationship, legal or factual, between the Cullen Center case and the Drill Bits litigation," and that no similarity between Drill Bits and the CPS suits was material. The court concluded that "Godfrey's representation of the plaintiffs in the Drill Bits litigation does not reasonably appear to be or become adversely limited by Susman Godfrey's responsibilities to Dresser in the CPS and Cullen Center cases," and accordingly denied the motion to disqualify. . . .

[The court determined that mandamus was appropriate to review the denial of a motion to disqualify counsel where the “petitioner can show its right to the writ is clear and undisputable.” It then focussed on what rules it should apply in determining whether disqualification was required. It concluded that it must “consider the motion governed by the ethical rules announced by the national profession in the light of the public interest and the litigants' rights.” It then continued:]

Our most far‑reaching application of the national standards of attorney conduct to an attorney's obligation to avoid conflicts of interest is Woods v. Covington County Bank . . . . We held in Woods that standards such as the ABA canons are useful guides but are not controlling in adjudicating such motions. The considerations we relied upon in Woods were whether a conflict has (1) the appearance of impropriety in general, or (2) a possibility that a specific impropriety will occur, and (3) the likelihood of public suspicion from the impropriety outweighs any social interests which will be served by the lawyer's continued participation in the case. . . .

In Woods [and subsequent cases], we applied national norms of attorney conduct to a conflict arising after the attorney's prior representation had been concluded. Now, however, we are confronted with our first case arising out of concurrent representation, in which the attorney sues a client whom he represents on another pending matter. We thus consider the problem of concurrent representation under our framework in Woods as tailored to apply to the facts arising from concurrent representation.

Exceptional circumstances may sometimes mean that what is ordinarily a clear impropriety will not, always and inevitably, determine a conflicts case. Within the framework we announced in Woods, Susman, for example, might have been able to continue his dual representation if he could have shown some social interest to be served by his representation that would outweigh the public perception of his impropriety.⁴ Susman, however, can present no such reason. There is no suggestion that other lawyers could not ably perform his offices for the plaintiffs, nor is there any basis for a suggestion of any societal or professional interest to be served. This fact suggests a rule of thumb for use in future motions for disqualification based on concurrent representation: However a lawyer's motives may be clothed, if the sole reason for suing his own client is the lawyer's self‑interest, disqualification should be granted.⁵

We find, therefore, that Dresser's right to the grant of its motion to disqualify counsel is clear and indisputable. We further find that the district court clearly and indisputably abused its discretion in failing to grant the motion. We have thus granted the petition and have issued the writ of mandamus, directing the [District Court] to enter an order disqualifying Stephen D. Susman and Susman Godfrey from continuing as counsel to the plaintiffs in Red Eagle Resources et al. v. Baker Hughes.

« « « « « « « « « «

1. Is this result fair to the attorneys? Should they be forced to turn down important and lucrative cases simply because someone else hired them first? Might not a strict approach cause firms to shy away from representing small clients with relatively small matters in complex areas for fear that doing so might affect future representation of an existing client or the ability to attract large clients in the future?

2. Remember that, for purposes of disqualification (and discipline under Rule 1.7), courts treat an entire law firm as one unit. Model Rule 1.10(a) provides: “While lawyers are associated in a firm, none of them shall knowingly represent a client when any one of them practicing alone would be prohibited from doing so by Rules 1.7, 1.8(c), 1.9 or 2.2” This prohibition may prohibit representation where a lawyer in one office of a “mega-firm” on one coast represents a client, and another attorney in the same firm, a continent away on the other coast (who the first attorney has never even heard of or met), sues that client for something totally unrelated. Should this make a difference to applicability of the rule? Or is this merely a price a firm pays for the benefits of large-scale, multi-office practice? What about representation of a corporation and representation by the same firm adverse to an affiliated corporation, such as a subsidiary? Are the concerns the same? See ABA Formal Op, 95-390. What if the conflict is caused by merger of companies? Of law firms? Should the resolution be the same? See Chapter 7, infra.

3. Can a law firm resolve this problem by obtaining in advance consent to future adverse representation? Should this be permitted? See ABA Formal Opinion 93-372 and the Restatement, § 202, Comment d, both of which permit waiver of future conflicts with informed consent in most circumstances.

4. Why can’t the firm just withdraw from client #1 and turn the situation into a “former client, subsequent representation” case? Where former clients are involved, no disqualification is required unless the matters are substantially related. (See infra). In Dresser, the client refused to discharge the attorney. Could the firm withdraw in any event? See M.R. 1.16. Would this resolve the problem? Most courts say no. They are unwilling to “allow a law firm to drop a client ‘like a hot potato’ in order to shift resolution of the conflict question from Rule 1.7 to Rule 1.9.” ABA/BNA Lawyers Manual, § 51:213. The result is to the contrary where the original client agrees to the firm’s withdrawal. In such a situation, the concerns of “unceremoniously dumping” the client are not involved. In re Sandahl, 980 F.2d 1118, 1121 (7th Cir. 1992).

b) Representing Co-Parties

Representation of co-plaintiffs or co-defendants is not prohibited, but requires consent and a high degree of caution. Initially, if undertaking joint representation, it is necessary to insure that, although nominally aligned on the same side, the parties are not really adverse. If the representation is truly adverse, the prohibition against dual representation applies. See Restatement, § 128, Comment d. See also Wolfram, Modern Legal Ethics (West 1986) at § 7.3.3.

If the parties appear to have similar interests, representation may be undertaken where the clients consent and the lawyer believes he or she can adequately serve all clients’ interests. Rule 1.7(a) and (b); see Restatement § 128, especially Comment d. Care must be taken to watch for signs of actual conflict, and further consents or withdrawal may be required if such conflicts do arise. Additionally, lawyers must make clear to jointly represented clients the scope of confidentiality as between co-clients and the limits that joint representation entails.

Why would multiple parties desire the same attorney? What risks does having one attorney for several clients in the same case pose? In what circumstances are the risks likely to outweigh the benefits? What precautions must/should be taken to avoid problems when representing multiple parties? Or should attorneys avoid such representation altogether? Note that joint representation is frequently discouraged and many attorneys have strict policies against it.

Are there special problems or issues in some areas of practice? For example, what about representation of multiple co-defendants in a criminal case? While joint representation is permissible where the interests of the co-defendants are the same, Holloway v. Arkansas, 435 U.S. 475 (1978), once these interests begin to diverge, a problem arises under Rule 1.7. See ABA Informal Opinion 1418 (1978). In order to fully protect a defendant’s Sixth Amendment right to counsel, an attorney should notify the court immediately when a real conflict becomes apparent. Compare Holloway with Cuyler v. Sullivan, 466 U.S. 920 (1980). See ABA Standards, The Defense Function, Standard 4-3.5(b). See also Comment to Rule 1.7, ¶ 7. Continuing such employment without clear consent after full disclosure may lead to discipline as well as a finding of ineffective assistance of counsel. As a result, most Public Defender offices will not engage in joint representation of multiple co-defendants. See generally Restatement, § 129.

Difficult issues also arise in matrimonial cases. In Missouri, an attorney is not permitted to represent both husband and wife in a dissolution proceeding even where it is uncontested and both parties consent. See Missouri Formal Op. 109 (1974). This view is consistent with the standards of the Americans Academy of Matrimonial Lawyers. See Standard 2-20, 9 J. Amer. Acad. Of Matrim. Lawyers (1992). Many states permit such representation where there is informed consent. Which approach is better. Missouri does permit one lawyer to represent one of the parties and draft the joint petition, while the other party remains unrepresented. Is this a better solution than joint representation? See generally Saylors, Conflict of Interest in Family Law, 28 Fam. L.Q. 451, 454-55 (1994).

What about representation of an insured and the insurer against a third-party claimant? Again, the interests of the parties may appear identical, but the possibility of conflicts are legion. See generally Annotated Rules, at 111-12. There is some question whether this is properly viewed as a multiple client issue or a third party payor situation. Compare In re Allstate Ins. Co., 722 S.W. 2d 947 (Mo. banc 1987) with Arana v. Koerner, 735 S.W.2d 729 (Mo. App. 1987). If the latter, Rule 1.8(f), which requires client consent, protection of client information, and exercise of independent professional judgment, is implicated. See M.R. 1.7, Comment ¶ 10. Particularly difficult issues arise where the lawyer is representing under a reservation of rights. For more detailed analysis of the complex issues in this area, see ABA/BNA Lawyers Manual § 51:308.

Special rules apply as well to settlement of multiple claims. Where aggregate settlements are involved, each client must consent after consultation that must include disclosure of the existence and nature of all claims involved and the participation of each person in the settlement. M.R. 1.8(g). Failure to obtain proper consent may be grounds to void a settlement. See Hayes v. Eagle-Pilcher Indust., Inc., 513 F.2d 892 (10th Cir. 1975).

An area that has caused some confusion and difficulty is issue, or positional, conflict. Under what circumstances should an attorney be prohibited from advancing arguments for one client that potentially may be harmful to another client? Can an attorney take inconsistent positions in different courts, for different clients, at the same time? In the same court? If the rules are too strict in this regard, won’t this substantially limit the lawyer’s ability to practice, perhaps restricting lawyers to only one side of any given area of law? Won’t this also limit client access to competent lawyers, especially in specialized areas?

The Comment to Rule 1.7 addresses positional conflict, allowing it unless “the representation of either client would be adversely affected.” According to the Comment, relevant factors are whether the arguments are in the same court, and whether at the trial or appellate level. The ABA Formal Opinion on this issue and the Comment to the Restatement focus less on the location of the arguments and more on “whether the lawyer in either case would be caused to ‘soft-pedal’ or alter arguments on behalf on one client so as not to undercut the position of the other client.” Reporter’s Notes, Comment f to § 128. See also Formal Op. 93-377. The Comment further suggests the following factors as relevant to this determination: whether the issue is substantive or procedural, the temporal relationship between the matters, the practical significance of the issues to the immediate and long-run interests of the clients involved, and the clients’ reasonable expectations in retaining the lawyer.

2. Non-litigation Conflicts

Representation of multiple clients arises also in nonlitigation settings. For example, can an attorney properly represent more than one party in putting together a business transaction. Can a lawyer represent both buyer and seller in a real estate deal? Can an attorney represent the entrepreneurs who are working to set up a new company? Rule 2.2 may permit such representation where the lawyer reasonably believes he or she can impartially handle the matter, the clients can make informed decisions, and the risk of material prejudice to any of the clients is slight. As with other potential conflict situations, consent after consultation is required. See Restatement, § 211. Moreover, if any party to the transaction requests, the lawyer must withdraw and cannot continue to represent any of the parties regarding the subject matter of the transaction. M.R. 2.2(c). See generally G. Hazard, Ethics in the Practice of Law, 61-68 (1978), discussing the "lawyer for the situation." What interests are served by such representation? What interests would be served by prohibiting it? Do rules 1.7 and 2.2 adequately address the issues? How do you distinguish situations in which Rule 1.7 or Rule 2.2 applies? Does it really matter? Note that the drafters of Ethics 2000 have recommended doing away with Rule 2.2 (leaving Rule 1.7 to deal with all concurrent representation situations).

A significant issue that arises with joint representation is its affect on confidentiality. “Sharing of information among . . . co-clients with respect to the matter involved in the representation is normal and typically expected.” Restatement § 60 , Comment l (P.F.D. 1). A lawyer representing more than one client may have a fiduciary duty to share any information relating to the representation obtained from one client with other jointly represented clients (as part of the lawyer’s duties of diligence and communication, 1.3 and 1.4). This may well include information adverse to a co-client. See generally Restatement § 60 , Comment l. While information obtained may not be confidential among co-clients, it is confidential as to third parties (those outside the attorney-client relationship). See generally Annotated Model Rules § 2.2 at 281. Of course, at some point, the existence of information that one co-client does not want to share may well be a signal to the attorney that he or she is no longer able to reasonably believe that all clients can be adequately represented and may be a strong indicator that withdrawal is advisable or necessary. For a discussion of these issues, see Restatement § 60 , Comment l. It has been suggested, however, that the parties can agree in advance to limit the sharing of information, see Annotated Model Rules § 2.2; Restatement § 60 , Comment l, but caution is advised.

Particular problems regarding conflicts can arise where an attorney represents an organization. These issues will be dealt with in Chapter 7 on organizational representation.

B. Former Clients

Although the Code did not directly address the problem of successive representation, the Model Rules adopted a version of the substantial relationship test used by the courts to disqualify attorneys. Under the Model Rules, a lawyer who has previously represented a client in a matter shall not thereafter represent another person in the same or a substantially related matter where that person's interests are materially adverse to the former client unless the client consents after consultation. M.R. 1.9. In “interpreting the Rule, the Commentary indicates that the scope of a matter depends on the facts involved, and that the "underlying question is whether the lawyer was so involved in the matter that the subsequent representation can be justly regarded as a changing of sides. . . . “ See also Restatement, § 132. The primary rationale behind this rule is protection of client confidences and, to a lesser extent, preservation of loyalty and avoidance of an appearance of impropriety.

Under what circumstances can an attorney be disciplined for undertaking subsequent representation adverse to a former client? Are the standards for disqualification different? Should they be? Read Model Rule 1.9, 1.10(b) and related Commentary.

Most of the law in this area has developed in the context of disqualification cases. During the time of the Code of Professional Responsibility, courts looked to Canons 4 (confidentiality), 5 (conflicts/independent judgment) and 9 (appearance of impropriety) for guidance, but no provision expressly addressed this issue. The courts developed their own approaches, culminating in the “substantial relationship” test, which was ultimately adopted by the Model Rules. The term “substantially related” appears in Rule 1.9, but is not defined. Court opinions help with that definition.

CHRISPENS v. COASTAL REFINING & MARKETING, INC.

257 Kan. 745, 897 P.2d 104 (1995)

DAVIS, Justice

This appeal involves a motion to disqualify counsel under Model Rules of Professional Conduct (MRPC) 1.9(a) (1994 Kan.Ct.R.Annot. 320) . . . .

Christopher Christian was a member of the firm of Turner and Boisseau, Chartered, from 1991 to 1993. During this time, he, along with Eldon Boisseau, represented Coastal Refining and Marketing, Inc., in several cases involving pipeline leakage or spills. In September 1993, Christian left Turner and Boisseau and began working for the firm of Michaud, Hutton, Fisher & Andersen (Michaud firm). In November 1993, the Michaud firm, with Christian signing the petition on behalf of plaintiffs Eldon Chrispens, et al, (Chrispens), filed an action against Coastal Refining and Marketing, Inc., (Coastal) alleging that its clients were injured by substances that leaked from a pipeline owned by Coastal.

Before any discovery, Coastal filed a motion to disqualify Christian pursuant to MRPC 1.9(a), and to disqualify the Michaud firm pursuant to MRPC 1.10(b). After an evidentiary hearing with testimony from Eldon Boisseau and Debra Broussard, Coastal's in‑house counsel, the trial court determined that the Coastal cases upon which Christian worked when a member of the firm of Turner and Boisseau were not substantially related to the case in which Christian, as a member of the Michaud firm, now brought suit against Coastal. The court held that in the absence of a substantial relationship between the cases, MRPC 1.9(a) did not prevent Christian from suing his former client, Coastal. Based on its decision of no personal conflict, the question of imputed disqualification of the Michaud firm was resolved against Coastal. . . .

Our discussion centers upon [MRPC 1.9] . . . . The applicable provisions of MRPC 1.9(a) provide:

A lawyer who has formerly represented a client in a matter shall not thereafter: (a) represent another person in the same or a substantially related matter in which that person's interests are materially adverse to the interests of the former client unless the former client consents after consultation." (1994 Kan.Ct.R.Annot. 320.) (Emphasis added.)

The trial court determined that there was not a substantial relationship between the previous cases Christian worked on while at Turner and Boisseau and the new case filed by Christian against his former client while working at the Michaud firm. This conclusion resulted in the court's denial of the motion for disqualification based upon a conflict of interest. Our first inquiry, and to a large extent, the resolution of this appeal, involves a determination of what is meant by the phrase "substantially related matter" expressed in MRPC 1.9(a) . . . .

SUBSTANTIALLY RELATED MATTER

One noted authority has commented that gallons of ink have been consumed by those who have tried to determine or explain the test for deciding whether a substantial relationship exists between representations. ABA/BNA Lawyers' Manual on Professional Conduct, 51:215. There is widespread agreement that conflict questions involving former clients should be resolved through application of the substantial relationship test. However, there is no standard definition of what the test should compare in determining whether there is a close connection between the conflicting representations. ABA/BNA Lawyer's Manual on Professional Conduct, 51:225. The Model Rules do not provide a definition, nor do the comments to the rules attempt to define the phrase "substantially related." There is no Kansas case law addressing the meaning and application of the phrase "substantially related matters" as used in MRPC 1.9(a) . . . .

The ABA/BNA Lawyer's Manual on Professional Conduct, 51:225 notes:

Perhaps the most widely followed formulation of the substantial relationship test is that it compares the 'matter' or 'subject matter' of the former representation to that of the current representation. 'Matter' is the word used in Model Rule 1.9(a), and this word, or the term 'subject matter,' is a popular means of applying the substantial relationship test.

Three separate approaches regarding the substantial relationship test have been used throughout the country. The first approach indicates that the comparison of the former and current representations should center on the facts of each case. The second approach, advanced by the Second Circuit, insists that the inquiry should focus on legal issues and requires the issues involved in the former representation to be "identical" to or "essentially the same" as those presented in the current representation. The relationship under the second approach must be "patently clear." This approach has not been a view widely adopted. See Nelson, Conflicts in Representation: Subsequent Representations in a World of Mega Law Firms, 6 Geo.J. Legal Ethics 1023, 1031 (1993). The third approach is set forth in the case of Westinghouse Elec. Corp. v. Gulf Oil Corp. The Seventh Circuit blends fact and issue comparisons into a three‑step substantial relationship test:

[D]isqualification questions require three levels of inquiry. Initially, the trial judge must make a factual reconstruction of the scope of the prior legal representation. Second, it must be determined whether it is reasonable to infer that the confidential information allegedly given would have been given to a lawyer representing a client in those matters. Finally, it must be determined whether that information is relevant to the issues raised in the litigation pending against the former client.

Each case under both MRPC 1.9(a) . . . must be decided on its unique facts and an application of the rule to those facts. This perhaps is another way of saying that the determination of conflict under MRPC 1.9(a) . . . must be made on a case‑by‑case basis with the decision to be based on the unique facts and application of the rule to facts of that case. Factors which courts have considered in making a determination under MRPC 1.9(a) . . . include: (1) The case involved the same client and the matters or transactions in question are relevantly interconnected or reveal the client's pattern of conduct; (2) the lawyer had interviewed a witness who was key in both cases; (3) the lawyer's knowledge of a former client's negotiation strategies was relevant; (4) the commonality of witnesses, legal theories, business practices of the client, and location of the client were significant; (5) a common subject matter, issues and causes of action existed; and (6) information existed on the former client's ability to satisfy debts and its possible defense and negotiation strategies. This is by no means an exhaustive list but merely reflects that the determination is oftentimes an evaluative determination by the trial court based upon the unique facts of the case. In some cases, one factor, if significant enough, may establish that the subsequent case is substantially similar. For example, if the former representation involved defending the client on a criminal charge and the attorney is thereafter elected as a prosecutor and then seeks to prosecute the same client upon a charge connected with the prior defense, the former representation alone makes the disqualification an easy question.

On the other hand, in cases less clear, the trial court must balance the previous client's right of confidentiality, the right of having a reasonable choice of legal counsel, and the right of lawyers to form new associations and take on new clients when leaving a previous association. Given the mobile society we live in and the very real need to preserve professional integrity as well as the real needs of those citizens who rely upon attorneys for assistance, the balancing of the competing interests becomes very difficult at times. Both the wording of the rules involved and the somewhat elusive test of "substantially related" provide the court with an opportunity to make a circumspect decision concerning conflict of interest. We reject the narrow Second Circuit view, which requires that a substantial relationship must be patently clear and disqualification is required only when the issues involved are identical or essentially the same. We adopt a rule which requires the trial court to make a determination after considering the facts surrounding the two representations. . . .

BURDEN OF PROOF

. . . MRPC 1.9 deals with the disqualification of an individual attorney. There is no requirement under this rule as there is under MRPC 1.10(b) to establish that the attorney gained material and confidential information during the course of his or her previous employment. As stated in Koch v. Koch Industries, disqualification under MRPC 1.9(a) is dependent upon the party moving for disqualification to establish that (1) the attorney whose disqualification is sought formerly represented them in a matter, (2) the matter is substantially related to a matter in which the attorney now seeks to represent a new client, and (3) the new client's interest is substantially adverse to the interest of the party seeking disqualification. We hold that the burden of proof under MRPC 1.9(a) is upon the party alleging conflict and moving for disqualification.

PRESUMPTIONS

The question under MRPC 1.9(a) regarding presumptions is: Once a matter has been found to be substantially related under MRPC 1.9(a) and all other requirements of the rule have been satisfied, does this result in automatic disqualification of the subject attorney? . . .

The answer to the question posed in the last paragraph is twofold. First, if the disqualification motion is advanced solely under MRPC 1.9(a), an irrebuttable presumption arises that in cases "substantially related," the former client revealed confidential information requiring the attorney's disqualification. . . .

A. Proceeding Under MRPC 1.9(a)

Once it has been established that an attorney has formerly represented a client in a matter and seeks to represent another client in the same or a substantially related matter in which that client's interests are materially adverse to the interests of the former client, an irrebuttable presumption arises that the attorney acquired confidential information in the former representation and is disqualified from representing the latter client. MRPC 1.9(a), by its express terms, provides that an attorney who has represented a client in a matter "shall not" represent an adverse party in the same or a substantially related matter. This is consistent with the substantial relationship test as used in the majority of jurisdictions. In Koch, the federal district court stated:

If a substantial relationship is found, an irrebuttable presumption arises that the former client revealed facts requiring the attorney's disqualification. The court need not inquire into whether the confidential information was actually revealed or whether the attorney would be likely to use the information to the disadvantage of the former client. . . . To conduct such an inquiry would frustrate the former client's interest in the confidential information.

We believe the reasoning of Koch is sound. The reason for this irrebuttable presumption, as noted in Koch, is rooted in the idea of attorney loyalty:

[MRPC 1.9(a) ] is a prophylactic rule to prevent even the potential that a former client's confidences and secrets may be used against him. Without such a rule, clients may be reluctant to confide completely in their attorneys. Second, the rule is important for the maintenance of public confidence in the integrity of the bar. [Citation omitted.] Finally, and importantly, a client has a right to expect the loyalty of his attorney in the matter for which he is retained.

Where a lawyer has been directly involved in a specific transaction, subsequent representation of clients with materially adverse interests in a matter substantially related to the specific transaction is prohibited. The burden upon a motion for disqualification under this rule is upon the moving party asserting the conflict. See MRPC 1.9, Comment (1994 Kan.Ct.R.Annot. 320‑ 21). . . .

[The court engaged in a lengthy analysis of the facts involving Christian’s prior representation of Chrispens and the current case]

. CONCLUSION

Coastal's burden under MRPC 1.9(a) was to show that (1) Christian formerly represented it in a matter, (2) that the matter is substantially related to the matter in which Christian now seeks to represent a new client, and (3) that the new client's interests are substantially adverse to the interests of Coastal.

The essential facts are not in dispute. As we have stated above, the trial court's conclusion that the matters were not substantially related is a question of law subject to de novo review. Contrary to the trial court's conclusion, we conclude as a matter of law that the matter between the two representations were substantially related. We base this conclusion on the facts that all cases involved the same client; that the matters or transactions in question are relevantly interconnected and reveal Coastal's pattern of conduct; that Christian had interviewed and acquired valuable knowledge of the weaknesses and strengths of key witnesses who will be key witnesses in the Chrispens case; that Christian obtained confidential financial information in representing Coastal concerning the settlement of a punitive damage claim in the Jerke/Ebenkamp cases, which information is material and relevant in the Chrispens case; that Christian gained material, confidential information of Coastal's negotiations strategies which may become valuable in the Chrispens case; that all cases involve the common subject of pipeline leaks or spills from Coastal's Wichita refinery; and that the previous representation by Christian of Coastal terminated less than three months from the time Christian initiated the Chrispens action against Coastal.

Reversed and remanded with directions to grant the motion for disqualification.

««««««««««

1. Chrispens identifies various approaches to determining whether a substantial relationship exists. Which approach (issue or fact-based) seems more appropriate? It appears that the majority is leaning toward a fact-based approach, which may be more sound since, as the court noted in Carlson v. Langdon, 751 P.2d 344, 349 (Wyo. 1988), issues frequently do not develop until long after litigation has been instituted. An approach that considers the factual context of the matters to determine if they have common facts is more consistent with the underlying concern that the attorney may have been in a position to receive confidential information which could possibly be used to the detriment of the former client in the later proceeding. Id. Some courts look to both a comparison of the issues and a review of the facts in order to determine whether a substantial relationship exists. See, e.g., Home Ins. Co. v. Marsh, 790 S.W.2d 749, 754 (Tex. Ct. App. 1990). As the authors of the ABA/BNA Manual have noted, “[i]n practice, the distinctions between formulations of the substantial relationship test become blurred.” 51:226.

2. Should the test for “substantial relationship” be a strict one, or should it be fairly liberal? Which approach does the Chrispens court take? As noted, some courts require that the relationship be “patently clear,’ while other courts appear to require merely that there be an opportunity for “greater insight” into the affairs of the client. The courts using a strict approach are usually concerned primarily, if not exclusively, with protecting confidential information. Those courts using broader tests are frequently also concerned about appearance of impropriety. How would it look to the public to allow the attorney to sue his or her former client in this situation? Is this an appropriate consideration? Canon 9 of the Code of Professional Responsibility provided that a lawyer should avoid the appearance of impropriety. The Model Rules contain no such provision. Is appearance of impropriety an appropriate basis for disqualification where there is little or no real risk to confidential information? Courts today are split on this issue. Compare Harker v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue, 82 F.3d 806. 808-809 (8th Cir. 1996)(not appropriate); President Lincoln Hotel Venture v. Bank One, 271 Ill. App. 3d 1048, 649 N.E.2d 432, 441 (1994)(appearance of impropriety “too slender a reed” on which to base disqualification even under the Code) with First American Carriers, Inc. V. Kroger, 302 Ark. 86, 787 S.W.2d 696 (1990) (test still appropriate); Heringer v. Haskell, 536 N.W.2d 362, 366-67 (N.D. 1995)(appearance of impropriety standard “has not been wholly abandoned in spirit.”). At least one court has equated the appearance of impropriety considerations that appeared in the old Code with loyalty considerations recognized by the Commentary to the Model Rules. See In re American Airlines, Inc. AMR, 972 F.2d 605, 607-20 (5th Cir. 1992).

3. As noted, where a court finds a substantial relationship, it will presume that the attorney has access to confidential information that would be helpful in the current litigation. Most courts hold this presumption to be irrebuttable and require disqualification. See. e.q. Herbes v. Graham, 180 Ill. App. 3d 692, 536 N.E.2d 164, 168 (1989); Home Insurance, 790 S.W.2d at 754. If no substantial relationship is found, the party seeking disqualification may still be permitted to demonstrate that there is a substantial risk that confidential information may be used improperly. See Restatement, § 213. If such a risk exists, disqualification is appropriate. Does the availability of disqualification even in the absence of a finding of substantial relationship indicate that the test ought to be a narrow one? After all, the test only addresses when automatic disqualification is required. If no such relationship exists, the party seeking disqualification still can prove that specific information is at risk. But doesn’t the need to do so put the information even more at risk?

4. Where an attorney has been disqualified, most courts will permit that attorney to turn over work product to new counsel unless actual confidential information is included or other improper advantage is likely. See, e.g., First Wisconsin Mortgage Trust v. First Wisconsin Corp., 584 F.2d 201 (7th Cir. 1978) and Canadian Gulf Lines, Inc. v. Triton International Carriers, Ltd., 434 F. Supp. 691 (D. Conn. 1976); see also EZ Painter Corp. v. Padco, Inc., 746 F.2d 1459, 1463 (Fed. Cir. 1984) (work product created after new lawyers who possessed information came to firm not turned over; previous work product could be given to new counsel.)

5. What about consultations with prospective clients? If a lawyer declines representation and is thereafter consulted by a person with interests materially adverse to the prospective client in a substantially related matter, should the lawyer be disqualified? Not necessarily, according to the Restatement. While recognizing that the Model Rules do not really address the issue, the Restatement would require disqualification only if the lawyer “has received from the prospective client confidential information that could be significantly harmful to the prospective client.” Restatement § 27 (P.F.D. #1 1997). The Restatement recognizes that the policy considerations are different with prospective and actual clients. What are these differences? Do you agree that prospective clients should be treated differently?

C. Imputed Disqualification

Difficult questions arise with regard to imputed disqualification. As a general matter, where attorneys are associated in a firm none of them may represent a client if any one of them, practicing alone, would be prohibited from doing so by the conflict rules. M.R. 1.10(a). Where lawyers do not move between firms, this rule is not usually difficult to apply except with regard to determining whether the affiliation requirement has been met. See Restatement, § 203. That requirement has been held by the ABA in Formal Opinion 90-357 (1990) to apply to lawyers who are "of counsel" to a firm. Thus, for purposes of imputed disqualification, if two or more firms share an "of counsel" attorney they are effectively considered to be a single firm in determining whether disqualification is required. Similarly, where a firm is "of counsel" to another firm, this would "entail the complete reciprocal attribution of disqualifications of all lawyers in each firm." Id. Where lawyers change firms, the conflicts are more difficult to resolve.

The question of “imputed” knowledge, and therefore “imputed” disqualification, exists at both ends of the representation. The issue arises because of the presumption of shared confidences. It has long been accepted that attorneys in the same firm can, and often do, share information. One of the advantages of practicing in a firm setting is the ability to bounce ideas off others in the firm, and to obtain expertise in a variety of areas within the firm. This requires consultation among attorneys in the firm. In addition, in many firms, there is unrestricted access to client files, and in some firms, regular meetings are held at which progress on cases is discussed. Thus, in many cases, it is reasonable to presume that, where an attorney in a firm represents a client, the attorney’s partners and associates have access to, and in fact have, protected information about that client.

The issue also arises where an attorney works on a client’s case within a firm, but may have very little to do with the case. This comes up most often involving young associates in large firms. It is not uncommon that the attorney will be given few, if any facts, and will be asked to research a discrete issue. The attorney may have no access to the client file and little opportunity to discuss the case with others. Is it reasonable to presume that this attorney has confidential information of the client that would be at risk if the attorney were on the other side?

These questions are at the core of the courts’ attempts to resolve the issue of imputed disqualification. Under what circumstances should the courts presume that an attorney who did not actually represent a client has protected information? Under what circumstances should the courts allow an attorney who actually worked on a case to deny that he or she has such information? While these matters are difficult enough, they are further complicated by the fact that it may not be the lawyer him or herself, but rather the lawyer’s new firm, that is undertaking the subsequent representation. How, if at all, should this alter the analysis?

Where disqualification is sought against a lawyer whose firm previously represented a client who the lawyer now represents adversely to, the courts have generally used two levels of presumptions to determine whether disqualification is required. The first presumption is that the attorney who represented the client in fact had confidential information that (if the matters are substantially related, and the subsequent representation is materially adverse) could be used against the client. This presumption is routinely viewed as irrebuttable. But where the attorney whose disqualification is sought did not actually work on the matter, most court will apply a rebuttable presumption on the issue of whether that attorney has protected information. If the attorney can rebut that presumption, by showing, for example, that he or she had no access to files and spoke to no one about the case, disqualification will not be ordered unless the other side comes back with information to show the contrary. In that case, the courts, not wanting a “swearing contest,” will generally allow the presumption to carry the day and will disqualify the attorney.

Where, however, the attorney actually worked on the matter, most courts will not allow the presumption of access to confidential information to be rebutted. In such situations, disqualification will be mandated. Some courts, however, are concerned about the limited access problem. In order to facilitate mobility among lawyers and choice of counsel by clients, these courts will allow rebuttal where the attorney was only “peripherally involved” in the previous matter. This issue was addressed in another portion of the Chrispens decision as follows:

This idea [of limited representation] is best reflected in the case of Silver Chrysler Plymouth Inc. v. Chrysler Mot. Corp., 518 F.2d 751, 756‑57 (2d Cir.1975), wherein the court stated: "But there is a reason to differentiate for disqualification purposes between lawyers who become heavily involved in the facts of a particular matter and those who enter briefly on the periphery.... Under the latter circumstances the attorney's role cannot be considered 'representation.' "

In order for the automatic disqualification to take place under MRPC 1.9(a), there must be a showing that the attorney whose disqualification is sought actually represented the former client, not just that his or her law firm did so. This allows attorneys on the periphery of issues to avoid being cast as having represented a client when, in fact, they merely belonged to the firm. This also corresponds to the Comment to MRPC 1.9, which states: "The lawyer's involvement in the matter can also be a question of degree."

Although the court in Silver Chrysler refused to draw a controlling distinction between partners and associates in addressing this question, it seems clear that this doctrine is designed to protect those with limited access to information, and they are most likely to be younger associates. For the most part, it is only where the scope and degree of representation by their nature rebut the presumption of shared confidences that the Silver Chrysler peripheral involvement approach has been accepted.

While the use of these presumptions to resolve issues of disqualifications has been generally accepted for some time, the advent of the Model Rules has begun to cause a change in focus. Under the Model Rules, a lawyer should not represent a person in the same or a substantially related matter in which that lawyer's prior firm previously represented a client whose interests are materially adverse and about whom the lawyer has acquired protected information. M.R. 1.9(b). The disciplinary rule allows for discipline only where the lawyer in fact possesses such information, although proof of such fact may be aided by "inferences, deductions or working presumptions." Comment ¶ 6.

Recently, courts in a number of jurisdictions that have adopted the Model Rules have begun to use the language of the rules, rather than the presumptions, to resolve disqualification issues. Thus, in Parker v. Volkswagenwerk Aktiengesellschaft, 781 P.2d 1099 (Kan. 1989), the court focussed not on whether it should presume access to information, but rather on whether there had been a showing that the attorney "had knowledge of material and confidential information." See also Graham v. Wyeth Labs, 906 F.2d 1419 (10th Cir. 1990) (applying Kansas law). Missouri appears to have followed this approach in In re Marriage of Carter, 862 S.W.2d 461 (Mo. App. 1993). Does this provide sufficient protection to the former client’s information? Does it adequately address appearances? Is use of the Model Rules appropriate in this context? Why or why not?

The problem is further complicated by the issue of screening. If it is not the attorney, but the attorney’s new firm, that is currently representing adverse to the attorney’s former client, can the attorney be screened from the current representation so that the firm can continue in the representation? The majority view, at least in the state courts, does not allow screening to prevent disqualification if the substantial relationship test has been met. See, e.g., Parker, 781 P.2d at 1106-07 (Model Rules "reject. . . any thought that the 'taint' of the incoming lawyer can be cured by screening. . . “); JK & Susie L. Wadley Research v. Morris, 776 S.W.2d 271, 284 (Ten. Ct. App. 1989); Weglarz v. Bruck, 128 Ill. App. 3d 1, 470 N.E.2d 21, 24 (1984) (screening only permitted where attorney had no confidential information). These courts believe that the continued risk of disclosure, coupled with the appearance of impropriety, outweigh interests in mobility and the right to counsel of choice.

A growing minority of courts has begun to recognize screening as a legitimate means of curing conflicts of this type based on the new realities of law practice which require a balancing of interests. Manning v. Waring, Cox, James, Sklar & Allen, 849 F.2d 222, 225 (6th Cir. 1988); see Schiessle v. Stephens, 717 F.2d 417, 421 (7th Cir. 1983); EZ Painter, supra. This issue caused heated discussion during debate on the Restatement. The current version of the Restatement would permit representation in the “former client” context “when there is no reasonably apparent risk that confidential information of the former client will be used with material adverse effect on the former client.” Such risk will not be found where any confidential information “is unlikely to be significant in the subsequent matter” and the lawyer having such information “is subject to screening measures adequate to eliminate involvement by that lawyer in the representation.” The Restatement also requires “timely and adequate notice of the screening” to all affected clients. Restatement, § 124(2). Is this an adequate resolution of the issue? Is it likely to be effective?

Where screening is permitted, it generally requires that the screened attorney be denied access to files, not discuss the matter with others in the firm, and not share in profits or fees derived from the representation. See Restatement, Comment to § 204; ABA/BNA Lawyer’s Manual, 51:2004-2005, 2010-2013.

Note that, in the prospective client context, the Restatement would permit screening even where the screened attorney actually had access to information that could be significantly harmful to the prospective client. Restatement § 15 Does this satisfactorily resolve the issues where prospective clients are concerned?

D. Non-lawyer Personnel

Conflict of interest problems can arise with regard to non-lawyer personnel within a law firm. In an Informal Opinion issued in June, 1988, the ABA addressed whether a law firm must be disqualified where a paralegal, who worked on a case with a prior firm, joined the firm representing the opposing party. The Committee noted that, under M.R. 5.3, the firm has an obligation to protect information that the paralegal may possess. This information can be adequately protected by using screening procedures that ensure the employee does not discuss the case with lawyers in the firm and does not work on the matter in any way. Disqualification of the firm, however, is not required.

This Opinion reflects the prevailing view in the courts, see, e.g. Phoenix Founders, Inc. v. Marshall, 887 S.W.2d 831 (Tex. 1994), although there are courts that see no reason for making a distinction between lawyers and non-lawyers in this situation. See Esquire Care Inc. v. Maguire, 532 So. 2d 740 (Fla. App. 1988) and cases discussed therein. Where lawyers and non-lawyer personnel are treated differently for these purposes, how should law students be treated?

E. Government Lawyers

Read Rule 1.11 and Comments.

Why are the rules for government lawyers different than for private lawyers? See A.B.A. Formal Opinion 342 (1975); see also Armstrong v. McAlpin, 625 F.2d 433 (2d Cir. 1980), vacated on jurisd. grounds, 449 U.S. 1106 (1981). What competing interests are at stake where Rule 1.11 is involved? Are these interests balanced appropriately? Who has a right to complain when a former government lawyer gets involved in a private matter? Do the rules adequately address their legitimate complaints? See generally Annotated Rules, at 179-92; Restatement § 133.

What constitutes a “matter”? Can drafting legislation or regulations ever constitute a “matter”? Should it? What about participating “personally and substantially”? What level of participation implicates the interests the rule was designed to protect? See Kelly v. Brown, 9 Vet. App. 37 (1996); Securities Investor Protection Corp. v. Vigman, 587 F. Supp. 1358, 1366-67 (C.D. Calif. 1984); see generally Opinion 342.

Does Rule 1.9 apply when an attorney who formerly represented the government represents adverse to the same governmental entity in a substantially related matter? See Violet v. Brown, 9 Vet. App. 530 (1996). Should it? See ABA Formal Op. 97-409, holding 1.9(a) and (b) inapplicable to former government lawyers. Is this a correct result?

Does the government, as a “client,” have the same entitlement to confidentiality that non-government clients have? Is there any justification for a distinction here? Consider the following:

The government has few secrets of the kind Canon 4 is meant to protect. A basic premise of the Freedom of Information and Government in the Sunshine Acts is that, with the exception of classified information, the only types of information that the government should properly seek to protect are matters of tactics, investigatory documents, and similar materials.

National Bonded Warehouse Ass’n, Inc. v. United States, 718 F. Supp. 967, 970 n.2 (C.I.T. 1989), quoting Developments in the Law - Conflict of Interest in the Legal Profession, 94 Harv. L. Rev. 1244, 1431 (1981). Do you agree?

Is the government consent provision too easy? Who is it that must provide the consent? Does that person have a sufficient stake in the outcome when the government is not a party to the subsequent litigation? And does that person have a potential conflict - between protecting the agency’s legitimate interests and setting a precedent that will preserve that individual’s own marketability in the future? While the government frequently consents, there are situations where it refuses to do so. See, e.g., Vigman. Is there any better solution to this problem?

F. Lawyer as Witness

Read Rule 3.7 and Comments. Why is it inappropriate or professionally irresponsible for an attorney to act as both witness and advocate in the same case? Read the following, interpreting the predecessor provision under the Code.

NUNN v. STATE

778 S.W.2d 707 (Mo. App. 1989)

STEPHAN, Judge.

Michael Nunn appeals the judgment of the trial court denying his Rule 27.26 motion. . . . In his first point, movant asserts that he was denied effective assistance of counsel in that his counsel testified at the trial and, when counsel's conduct was made an issue, counsel failed to move for a mistrial or to withdraw as counsel.

Prior to movant's trial on charges of arson, assault, and burglary, defense counsel decided to interview three of the state's witnesses over the telephone. Defense counsel tape‑recorded portions of these conversations without the other person's knowledge.

About six months prior to defendant's trial, one of these witnesses, Ms. Yvette Blake, was subpoenaed to appear for a deposition at defense counsel's office. The state, however, received no notice of the subpoena or scheduled deposition nor was a copy of the subpoena filed with the court. Ms. Blake appeared at defense counsel's office; however, no deposition was taken.

At trial, Ms. Blake testified for the state. When defense counsel cross‑examined her, he attempted to attack her credibility and establish her bias by showing that her testimony, if favorable to the state, would result in the state's more lenient disposition of certain criminal charges pending against her. She denied this. She further denied that she remembered talking to defense counsel on the telephone about the case, although she acknowledged she had appeared at his office.

Defense counsel attempted to refresh her recollection of the telephone conversation by mentioning the subpoena she had received from his office. After the prosecutor's objections, defense counsel abandoned his efforts to impeach her credibility. Instead, during defense counsel's presentation of his case‑in‑chief, he called himself as the first witness in order to counter the testimony of Ms. Blake. Prior to testifying, he made no motion to withdraw as defense counsel. His brother, also an attorney, conducted the direct examination and defense counsel testified to his knowledge of the inconsistent statements by the state's witness, Ms. Blake.

The prosecutor vigorously interrogated defense counsel suggesting that defense counsel had served the subpoena on Yvette Blake for improper reasons. The prosecutor inquired whether defense counsel knew of the requirement not only that notice be given to all parties in an action when a deposition is to be taken, but also that attorneys avoid even the appearance of impropriety. The prosecutor further asked whether, in defense counsel's opinion, it was "legally, morally or ethically wrong" to call a state's witness and tape record their telephone conversation without disclosing they are being taped. After defense counsel finished testifying, he resumed his place at counsel's table and continued his presentation of defendant's case.

The last witness defense counsel called to testify was Timothy Murphy, an attorney and former law clerk in defense counsel's firm. He admitted being responsible for the handling of the subpoena. The sole purpose of his testimony was to absolve defense counsel of any wrongdoing with the subpoena episode.

During the state's closing argument, the prosecutor attacked defense counsel's credibility. He mentioned both the taping of telephone conversations and also the subpoena incident. He concluded his argument with the following: [Defense counsel] thinks it's an honorable thing to call witnesses up and not tell them they are being taped. Is it an honorable thing also to deliver a subpoenaed witness for deposition to a State's witness, have them come in to a law firm when there is no deposition taken, where there is no notice to the Prosecutor? If we are going to talk about Yvette Blake's credibility, look at the people who are calling her a liar, and [defense counsel is] the primary one.

At the hearing on the motion, defense counsel testified he knew that if he took the stand his credibility, like that of any other witness, would be put in issue. Nevertheless, since he was the only person to hear the inconsistent statements from the state's witnesses, he believed his testimony was vital in the case. He discussed his course of action with movant and other members of his office.

After the evidentiary hearing, the motion court issued its findings of fact and conclusions of law and denied movant's allegation that his attorney was ineffective for failing to withdraw after testifying in movant's behalf. The court observed that defense counsel "wanted to testify on behalf of Movant at the trial in order to show that a State's witness had lied on the witness stand" and that "[t]he only way to show the witness' inconsistent statement was for [defense counsel] to testify." The court stated there was no reason for defense counsel to withdraw from the case prior to or during the trial since he could not have known that the state's witness would testify differently as to the facts she had related to defense counsel before trial. The court concluded that defense counsel's decision to call himself as a witness was one of "trial strategy" and did not reflect "errant judgment."

We disagree. Rule 4 of the Supreme Court of Missouri Rules, (since repealed) DR 5‑101(B) provides that a lawyer shall not accept employment if he knows or it is obvious that he ought to be called as a witness, except if the testimony will relate solely to an uncontested matter, a matter of formality, the nature and value of legal services, or would work a substantial hardship on the client. DR 5‑102(A) requires a lawyer and his firm to withdraw from the conduct of the trial if he learns or it is obvious that he ought to be called as a witness on behalf of his client except as allowed by the exceptions in DR 5‑101(B).

Our Missouri Supreme Court analyzed the rationale behind DR 5‑102 and 5‑101 in State v. Johnson, 702 S.W.2d 65, 69 (Mo. banc 1985):

The reasons underlying this rule are set forth in Ethical Consideration 5‑9 of Missouri's Code of Professional Responsibility. First, a lawyer who serves as both trial counsel and witness is open to impeachment on the basis of an apparent interest in the outcome of the trial and is thus rendered less effective as a witness. Second, a lawyer who assumes both of those roles in a single case makes it more difficult for opposing counsel to conduct effective cross‑examination and creates an awkward scenario in which one advocate must challenge the credibility of his legal adversary. Third, the lawyer who assumes the role of a witness must argue his own credibility, which may serve to weaken his credibility and effectiveness as an advocate. Finally, the two roles are said to be simply inconsistent. These reasons, though, have greatest purpose when the witness and advocate are one and the same.

Here, since each of these concerns surfaced during trial, we conclude that an actual conflict of interest existed between defense counsel and movant. At trial, the state first identified defense counsel's obvious interest in the outcome of the case by noting that he was not an appointed counsel but, rather, had been retained by defendant. Second, through its intimation of impropriety in counsel's tape‑recording telephone conversations without the other side's knowledge and issuing a subpoena for an improper purpose, the state made defense counsel's credibility an issue for the jury. Third, defense counsel called a witness for the sole purpose of rehabilitating defense counsel's own credibility. Finally, defense counsel's appearance in the inconsistent roles of advocate and witness may have undermined the jury's ability to decide the facts and its perception of movant.

Although the courts of Missouri have not addressed the particular situation in which a defense counsel testifies on behalf of his client and then continues with the case, a comparable scenario developed in State v. Hayes, 473 S.W.2d 688 (Mo.1971). In Hayes, the prosecuting attorney appeared as a witness for the state and then continued in the case as the prosecutor. Our Missouri Supreme Court echoed Tomlin v. State, 81 Nev. 620, 407 P.2d 1020, 1022 (1965), stating as follows: [T]he right of a prosecuting attorney to testify in a criminal case 'is strictly limited to those instances where his testimony is made necessary by the peculiar and unusual circumstances of the case. Even then, his functions as a prosecuting attorney and as a witness should be disassociated. If he is aware, prior to trial, that he will be a necessary witness, or if he discovers this fact in the course of the trial, he should withdraw....' The court held that "the prosecuting attorney occupied conflicting positions as a witness for the State and as a prosecutor ... and the natural tendency in such a case is for defendant to question the fairness of a trial when the prosecutor becomes a witness for the state."

In the instant case, when defense counsel decided that he should testify in his client's behalf, he was under a duty to withdraw from the case. He should not have been surprised that the state inquired about the subpoena and the taping of the telephone calls. Defense counsel's disregard for EC 5‑9 and DR 5‑102(A) thus put him in a situation where his continued representation jeopardized movant's position during the criminal trial. For example, counsel's act in calling the last defense witness, his former law clerk, was solely to refute the allegations of counsel's involvement with the subpoena. The only testimony elicited from the witness was directed at disassociating defense counsel from the entire subpoena episode.

Counsel was caught between the obligation to do his best for movant and the need to justify his own conduct as legal and ethical. An accused is entitled to representation which is uncluttered by counsel's efforts to vindicate his own conduct. A conflict of interest resulting in ineffective assistance of counsel may arise from an interest adverse to the accused or an interest simply personal to the attorney.

The only issue which should have been before the jury was defendant's conduct, not that of his attorney. Counsel's actions which injected his credibility as an issue during movant's trial undoubtedly adversely affected his client's interests. Counsel's prior conduct was completely irrelevant to movant's case and could only detract from his defense. That the jury unintentionally imputed the alleged improprieties of defense counsel to his client is a very real possibility. Counsel could have avoided this possibility by adhering to the ethical prohibitions.

We do not dispute counsel's right to call himself as a witness; clearly, an attorney may be a competent witness. Trial strategy, however, only applies to the decision to call a witness; it does not extend to the decision to remain as counsel. Such a situation produces a conflict of interest, and to sweep it under the rug of trial strategy is a mischaracterization. Furthermore, we find no "peculiar and unusual circumstances" as referred to in Hayes which would justify the need to remain as counsel.

Can a defendant consent to his or her lawyer serving as both advocate and witness? While ordinarily Rule 3.7 prohibits a lawyer doing so even where the attorney consents, the Missouri Court of Appeals noted that, where a defendant desires to retain counsel despite the possible conflict of roles, the court “must balance the defendant’s constitutional right against the need to preserve the highest ethical standards of professional responsibility.” State ex rel. Fleer v. Conley, 809 S.W.2d 405, 409 (Mo. App. 1991). In Fleer, the court found that the lawyer might not in fact have to testify. In addition, it believed that the trial judge had not adequately considered the degree of hardship disqualification would cause to the defendant who had no further funds to retain counsel and who was ready for trial and did not want a further long delay. It reversed the trial court’s disqualification of counsel pending a more complete balancing of the interests involved.

Outside the context of criminal defense, the courts generally will not permit the lawyer to play dual roles except in exceptional circumstances. Courts generally construe the exceptions to Rule 3.7 rather narrowly. Note also that the rule applies only to appearance and testimony at trial; appearance at pretrial proceedings, and involvement outside of the courtroom, are not addressed by this rule. See generally Annotated Rules, at 355-364.

If a lawyer cannot represent a client because that lawyer will be required to testify, should the lawyer’s firm be disqualified as well? Under the Code, the answer was generally “yes,”, but the Model Rules are more liberal in this regard. Rule 3.7(b) permits associated lawyers to continue to represent as long as they are not precluded by other conflict of interest rules (e.g., 1.7, 1.9). In what circumstances would such a conflict arise? When would no such conflict exist?

Identifying the Client for Conflict Purposes

It is clear that a "'corporate attorney' - whether an in-house lawyer or a law firm that serves as counsel to the company, owes a duty to act in accordance with the interests of the corporate entity itself. His client is the corporation." Evans v. Artek Systems Corp., 715 F.2d 788, 792 (2d Cir. 1983); see M.R. 1.13(a). In a conflict context, this means that a lawyer employed to represent an organization represents the interest of the organization as defined by its responsible agents acting pursuant to the organization's decision-making procedures. See Restatement ' 212, Comment b. Thus, the attorney's duty to preserve confidential information and to exercise independent professional judgment run to the entity, and not to other constituents within the organization. As previously noted, confidentiality issues arise where the attorney, albeit representing a corporation, is dealing with constituents members whose interests may or may not diverge from those of the entity itself. Since information must be obtained from these individuals, but has the potential to be used adversely to them, conflict is possible. The key for the corporate attorney is to deal with these constituents fairly while at the same time advancing the corporation's interests in obtaining necessary information and protecting its institutional interests. See Hazard & Hodes, at 243. This can pose a
challenge for corporate counsel.

Representing the Corporation and Constituents

In dealing with constituents of the corporation, whether they be management, employees, directors or others, the lawyer must be clear in his or her role. Pursuant to Model Rule 1.13(d) and Rule 4.3, the corporate lawyer must make clear to those with whom he or she is dealing that the corporation is the client and that information provided by those individuals is privileged outside the corporation but not as to the corporation itself. The lawyer's role as counsel for the entity should be clarified in any situation where the interest of the constituent has the potential of being adverse to the interest of the corporation.

Normally, a lawyer who obtains information from and advises a corporate constituent will not be disqualified from representing the corporation if a conflict between the organization and the constituent arises. See Lane v. Chowning, 610 F.2d 1385 (8th Cir. 1979). Where, however, the lawyer has failed to make his or her role clear, it is possible that the lawyer may be disqualified from representing the corporation in a matter adverse to that constituent in the future. Courts have recognized that "in particular circumstances and in the absence of warning from the lawyer, an associated person (constituent) may
reasonably rely on the lawyer's apparent willingness to provide legal services for the associated person in addition to the entity, thus creating an implied client-lawyer relationship. E.g., Everson v. Koons, F. Supp. , 7 ABA/BNA Lawy. Man. Prof. Conduct 175 (D.N.C. 1990)." Restatement of the Law Governing Lawyers (Preliminary Draft No. 8 August 14, 1992) '194, Reporter's Notes Comment g, reprinted in Wolfram, Ethical Considerations for Corporate Counsel: Advising and Disclosing in an Uncertain Legal World, 796 PLI/Corp. 235 (1993).

A corporate lawyer may, subject to the internal policies of the corporation, concurrently represent both the corporation and one or more of its existing or former constituents. Model Rule 1.13(e); see ABA/BNA Lawyers' Manual, at 91:2601-2602; Hazard and Hodes, at 264-265. In order to do so, the attorney must insure that the general conflict of interest provisions of Rule 1.7 are scrupulously followed. This requires first that the attorney reasonably believe that he or she can adequately represent both the corporation and the constituents. In determining whether that is possible, the attorney must analyze what
effect the dual representation will have on the attorney's ability to exercise independent professional judgment on behalf of the corporation. In addition, the attorney must obtain the consent of the organization. In order to obtain such consent, the attorney must clearly explain the impact of such dual representation, and the consent must be obtained from an appropriate official other than the person who is to be jointly represented.

Multiple representation in shareholder derivative actions presents special problems. In such cases, where the lawyer may be required "to defend not only the corporation but also (if they have not retained separate counsel) individual constituents whose actions have allegedly harmed the company, the lawyer's loyalty to the individuals may be impaired by his [or her] representation of the entity, for whose benefit, ostensibly, the derivative action was brought." ABA/BNA Lawyers' Manual, at 91:2602. In light of this increased potential for conflict, "motions for the disqualification of corporate counsel in derivative
actions have been granted." Id; see also Annotated Rules, at 212-213; see generally Note, Multiple Representation in Shareholder Derivative Suits: A Case-by-Case Approach, 16 Loy. U. Chi. L.J. 613 (1985).

Special Conflict of Interest Problems in the Representation of Affiliated Entities

The role of corporate counsel where more than one member of a corporate family is involved presents unique difficulties. "When a lawyer represents two or more organizations with some common ownership or membership, whether a conflict exists is determined primarily on the basis of formal organizational distinctions." Restatement, ' 212, Comment d. With regard to affiliated organizations, "the lawyer must respect the organizational boundaries of each and analyze possible conflicts of interest
on the basis that the organizations are separate entities." Id. In dealing with affiliated entities, whether they be parent, subsidiary, division, or sister corporation, the first question to be addressed is whether the attorney who represents the corporation also represents that entity. Although normally this question can be resolved by an analysis of the structure of the entities and the reasonable expectation of the parties, some courts have taken a categorical position with regard to affiliated-entity relationships. See, e.g., Strategem Development Corp. v. Heron Int'l, N.V., 756 F. Supp. 789, 792 (S.D.N.Y. 1991) (holding that a lawyer who represents a wholly owned subsidiary will be regarded as representing a parent for current conflict purposes). "A decentralized division of a single corporation presents certain problems of client identity arising from the nature of the division's management charter. In the case of a subsidiary corporation, the question of client identity presents, in addition, the legal problems of maintaining and recognizing the separate corporate identity of the subsidiary and coping with the possibility that the lawyer who represents both entities may have a conflict of interest." Birdzell, Ethical Problems of Inside Counsel '2.03[2] (1987). Where there is substantial identity of ownership, the risk of conflict is lessened. ABA Informal Opinion 973 (1967). Where, however, outside interests are involved in the subsidiary, the conflict issues have the potential to be more difficult. Birdzell, at '2.03[2]; ABA Informal Opinion 973. Some difficulties can be obviated by carefully clarifying in advance the appropriate lines of communication and decision-making authority among and between constituent entities. This can provide guidance to counsel if and when corporate disputes emerge.

Generally, a lawyer may represent more than one division within an entity, and must resolve differences among them according to the organization's normal decision-making procedures. Restatement, ' 212, Comment d. A parent company's in-house counsel may represent an affiliated company in its dealings with third parties and may represent both parties on the same matter where no conflict of interest exists. Massachusetts Ethics Opinion 83-9 (1983).

Needless to say, care must be taken in representing multiple entities within the corporate structure. The nature of the relationship between the entities must be clarified and the effect on attorney-client privilege anticipated and addressed. Moreover, the attorney must insure that, whenever a potential for conflict exists, the terms of M.R. 1.7 are met.

Serious problems are also raised where an attorney represents an entity and seeks to represent adversely to an affiliate of that entity. Such representation is governed by Rule 1.7 as well. In order to determine whether Rule 1.7(a) or (b) applies, it is necessary to determine whether the attorney actually represents the affiliated entity. ABA Formal Opinion 95-390. That opinion rejected a categorical approach to this question and concluded that “whether a lawyer represents a corporate affiliate of his client, for purposes of Rule 1.7, depends not upon any clearcut per se rule but rather upon the particular circumstances. Among the factors to consider are whether such a relationship has been created under the terms of Restatement ' 26, whether the parties have agreed that the attorney is to treat the affiliate as a client, whether confidential information has been disclosed to the lawyer by (or perhaps regarding) the affiliate with an expectation of confidentiality, and whether there is sufficient unity of interests between the entities so as to require the lawyer to regard the affiliate as a client.”

Where the attorney is found to represent both a corporation and an affiliated entity, the attorney may not sue one and represent the other, even in unrelated matters, without client consent. Op. 95-390, relying on Rule 1.7(a). In such a situation, the representation would be deemed directly adverse. Even if the lawyer is not representing the affiliate, however, it is possible that the attorney's participation in suing the affiliate on behalf of another client will be deemed directly adverse to the represented corporation, but this is not, according to 95-390, necessarily so. On this point, the dissenting committee members sharply disagree. Which is the better view? Under what circumstances would there be direct adversity? When would there not be such adversity? See generally Opinion 95-390. Even if there is not direct adversity, it may be possible that the representation of a corporation and also of a party suing an affiliate of that corporation will cause the attorney's representation to be A materially limited, thereby triggering application of Rule 1.7(b). The ABA Opinion recognized this possibility as well. If so, consent will be required. If not, the attorney may undertake the representation and is urged, but not required, to consult with the client. Again, the failure to require consultation and consent caused sharp dissents from the majority position.

This is an area of continuing concern as the issues involved arise with increasing frequency because of “[t]he proliferation of national or multi-national public corporations owning or partially owning subsidiaries which may also be national or multi-national [and] the spawning of varied types of corporate affiliates. . . .'" Opinion 95-390, quoting from Pennwalt Corp. v. Plough, Inc. 85 F.R.D. 264, 267 (D. Del. 1980). For cases addressing this issue, see Restatement, ' 212, Reporter's Note Comment d. 9

“Drill Bits was going to be a case that was going to be active, big, protracted, the first price fixing case that's come along in Houston in a long time. I had made somewhat of a reputation in that area, and I guess it's kind of painful not to be able to play in the game anymore, . . .” Deposition of Stephen D. Susman

The agreement between the Code and Rules on this point is made obvious in the practice guide of the ABA/BNA Lawyer's Manual On Professional Conduct, which discusses the obligations of a lawyer under both the ABA rules and code. The practice guide describes a bar to a nonconsensual representation adverse to the client: A lawyer may not represent one client whose interests are adverse to those of another current client of the lawyer's even if the two representations are unrelated, unless the clients consent and the lawyer believes he or she is able to represent each client without adversely affecting the other. Courts and ethics panels generally take a broad view of this restriction, and a specific adverse effect probably will not have to be shown. All that need be present is that one lawyer is or firm is representing two clients, even in unrelated matters, with potentially conflicting interests. ABA/BNA Lawyer's Manual On Professional Conduct, 51:101 (1990 Supp.).

[See Restatement, §127, Comment e (1996) for the current version.]

⁴

[The Texas rule would allow some concurrent adverse representation, for example where] necessary either to prevent a large company, such as Dresser, from monopolizing the lawyers of an area or to assure that certain classes of unpopular clients receive representation. Although we do not now reach the matter, our consideration of social benefit to offset the appearance of impropriety might allow such a representation if the balance clearly and unequivocally favored allowing such representation to further the ends of justice. We believe, moreover, that the Texas rules are drawn to allow concurrent representation as the exception and not the rule. Even if the Texas rules had applied, no special circumstances being present here, Texas rule 1.06's prohibition of representation of potentially adverse interests would have barred the representation.

⁵

This result accords with the approach of other circuits, which have similarly found concurrent representation to be grossly disfavored. See, e.g., International Business Machines Corp. v. Levin, 579 F.2d 271 (3d Cir.1978) (antitrust plaintiff firm disqualified from suing company for which it was on retainer); Cinema 5, Ltd. v. Cinerama, Inc., 528 F.2d 1384 (2d Cir.1976) (antitrust plaintiff counsel's representation while firm was counsel in an unrelated antitrust case was prima facie improper); EEOC v. Orson H. Gygi Co., Inc., 749 F.2d 620 (10th Cir.1984) (attorney disqualified from defending employer in sex discrimination suit by employee represented in state annulment proceeding).

An Overview of Conflicts of Interest

ATTORNEY’S INTERESTS

(1.8, 3.7)

THIRD PARTY INTERESTS

(1.8, 1.13)

THIRD PARTY
INTERESTS